Common Weakness Enumeration

CWE-125

Allowed

Out-of-bounds Read

Abstraction: Base · Status: Draft

The product reads data past the end, or before the beginning, of the intended buffer.

11271 vulnerabilities reference this CWE, most recent first.

CVE-2026-50463 (GCVE-0-2026-50463)

Vulnerability from cvelistv5 – Published: 2026-07-14 17:07 – Updated: 2026-07-15 13:29
VLAI
Title
Windows Kernel Information Disclosure Vulnerability
Summary
Out-of-bounds read in Windows Kernel allows an unauthorized attacker to disclose information over a network.
SSVC
Exploitation: none Automatable: yes Technical Impact: partial
CISA Coordinator (v2.0.3)
CWE
Assigner
References
Impacted products
Vendor Product Version
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 1809 Affected: 10.0.17763.0 , < 10.0.17763.9020 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 21H2 Affected: 10.0.19044.0 , < 10.0.19044.7548 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 22H2 Affected: 10.0.19045.0 , < 10.0.19045.7548 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 11 Version 24H2 Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.8875 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 11 Version 25H2 Affected: 10.0.26200.0 , < 10.0.26200.8875 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 11 version 26H1 Affected: 10.0.28000.0 , < 10.0.28000.2269 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2019 Affected: 10.0.17763.0 , < 10.0.17763.9020 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2019 (Server Core installation) Affected: 10.0.17763.0 , < 10.0.17763.9020 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2022 Affected: 10.0.20348.0 , < 10.0.20348.5386 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2025 Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.33158 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2025 (Server Core installation) Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.33158 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Date Public
2026-07-14 14:00
Show details on NVD website

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CVE-2026-50453 (GCVE-0-2026-50453)

Vulnerability from cvelistv5 – Published: 2026-07-14 17:07 – Updated: 2026-07-14 19:39
VLAI
Title
Windows USB Audio Class Driver Information Disclosure Vulnerability
Summary
Out-of-bounds read in Windows USB Audio Class driver (usbaudio.sys) allows an unauthorized attacker to disclose information with a physical attack.
SSVC
Exploitation: none Automatable: no Technical Impact: partial
CISA Coordinator (v2.0.3)
CWE
Assigner
References
Impacted products
Vendor Product Version
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 1607 Affected: 10.0.14393.0 , < 10.0.14393.9339 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 1809 Affected: 10.0.17763.0 , < 10.0.17763.9020 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 21H2 Affected: 10.0.19044.0 , < 10.0.19044.7548 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 22H2 Affected: 10.0.19045.0 , < 10.0.19045.7548 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 11 Version 24H2 Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.8875 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 11 Version 25H2 Affected: 10.0.26200.0 , < 10.0.26200.8875 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 11 version 26H1 Affected: 10.0.28000.0 , < 10.0.28000.2269 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2012 Affected: 6.2.9200.0 , < 6.2.9200.26226 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2012 (Server Core installation) Affected: 6.2.9200.0 , < 6.2.9200.26226 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2012 R2 Affected: 6.3.9600.0 , < 6.3.9600.23291 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2012 R2 (Server Core installation) Affected: 6.3.9600.0 , < 6.3.9600.23291 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2016 Affected: 10.0.14393.0 , < 10.0.14393.9339 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2016 (Server Core installation) Affected: 10.0.14393.0 , < 10.0.14393.9339 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2019 Affected: 10.0.17763.0 , < 10.0.17763.9020 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2019 (Server Core installation) Affected: 10.0.17763.0 , < 10.0.17763.9020 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2022 Affected: 10.0.20348.0 , < 10.0.20348.5386 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2025 Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.33158 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2025 (Server Core installation) Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.33158 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Date Public
2026-07-14 14:00
Show details on NVD website

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CVE-2026-50437 (GCVE-0-2026-50437)

Vulnerability from cvelistv5 – Published: 2026-07-14 17:07 – Updated: 2026-07-15 13:29
VLAI
Title
Windows DWM Core Library Information Disclosure Vulnerability
Summary
Out-of-bounds read in Windows DWM Core Library allows an authorized attacker to disclose information locally.
SSVC
Exploitation: none Automatable: no Technical Impact: partial
CISA Coordinator (v2.0.3)
CWE
Assigner
References
Impacted products
Vendor Product Version
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 1607 Affected: 10.0.14393.0 , < 10.0.14393.9339 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 1809 Affected: 10.0.17763.0 , < 10.0.17763.9020 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 21H2 Affected: 10.0.19044.0 , < 10.0.19044.7548 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 22H2 Affected: 10.0.19045.0 , < 10.0.19045.7548 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 11 Version 24H2 Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.8875 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 11 Version 25H2 Affected: 10.0.26200.0 , < 10.0.26200.8875 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 11 version 26H1 Affected: 10.0.28000.0 , < 10.0.28000.2269 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2016 Affected: 10.0.14393.0 , < 10.0.14393.9339 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2016 (Server Core installation) Affected: 10.0.14393.0 , < 10.0.14393.9339 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2019 Affected: 10.0.17763.0 , < 10.0.17763.9020 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2019 (Server Core installation) Affected: 10.0.17763.0 , < 10.0.17763.9020 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2022 Affected: 10.0.20348.0 , < 10.0.20348.5386 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2025 Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.33158 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2025 (Server Core installation) Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.33158 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Date Public
2026-07-14 14:00
Show details on NVD website

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CVE-2026-50429 (GCVE-0-2026-50429)

Vulnerability from cvelistv5 – Published: 2026-07-14 17:07 – Updated: 2026-07-14 19:39
VLAI
Title
Windows Kernel Information Disclosure Vulnerability
Summary
Out-of-bounds read in Windows Kernel allows an unauthorized attacker to disclose information over a network.
CWE
  • CWE-125 - Out-of-bounds Read
  • CWE-200 - Exposure of Sensitive Information to an Unauthorized Actor
Assigner
References
Impacted products
Vendor Product Version
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 1607 Affected: 10.0.14393.0 , < 10.0.14393.9339 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 1809 Affected: 10.0.17763.0 , < 10.0.17763.9020 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 21H2 Affected: 10.0.19044.0 , < 10.0.19044.7548 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 22H2 Affected: 10.0.19045.0 , < 10.0.19045.7548 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 11 Version 24H2 Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.8875 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 11 Version 25H2 Affected: 10.0.26200.0 , < 10.0.26200.8875 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 11 version 26H1 Affected: 10.0.28000.0 , < 10.0.28000.2269 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2016 Affected: 10.0.14393.0 , < 10.0.14393.9339 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2016 (Server Core installation) Affected: 10.0.14393.0 , < 10.0.14393.9339 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2019 Affected: 10.0.17763.0 , < 10.0.17763.9020 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2019 (Server Core installation) Affected: 10.0.17763.0 , < 10.0.17763.9020 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2022 Affected: 10.0.20348.0 , < 10.0.20348.5386 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2025 Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.33158 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2025 (Server Core installation) Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.33158 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Date Public
2026-07-14 14:00
Show details on NVD website

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CVE-2026-50428 (GCVE-0-2026-50428)

Vulnerability from cvelistv5 – Published: 2026-07-14 17:06 – Updated: 2026-07-14 19:38
VLAI
Title
Windows Container Isolation FS Filter Driver (unionfs.sys) Information Disclosure Vulnerability
Summary
Out-of-bounds read in Windows Container Isolation FS Filter Driver (unionfs.sys) allows an authorized attacker to disclose information locally.
SSVC
Exploitation: none Automatable: no Technical Impact: partial
CISA Coordinator (v2.0.3)
CWE
Assigner
References
Impacted products
Vendor Product Version
Microsoft Windows 11 version 26H1 Affected: 10.0.28000.0 , < 10.0.28000.2269 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Date Public
2026-07-14 14:00
Show details on NVD website

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CVE-2026-50422 (GCVE-0-2026-50422)

Vulnerability from cvelistv5 – Published: 2026-07-14 17:07 – Updated: 2026-07-15 03:57
VLAI
Title
Windows NTFS Elevation of Privilege Vulnerability
Summary
Out-of-bounds read in Windows NTFS allows an authorized attacker to elevate privileges locally.
SSVC
Exploitation: none Automatable: no Technical Impact: total
CISA Coordinator (v2.0.3)
CWE
Assigner
References
Impacted products
Vendor Product Version
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 1607 Affected: 10.0.14393.0 , < 10.0.14393.9339 (custom)
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Microsoft Windows 10 Version 1809 Affected: 10.0.17763.0 , < 10.0.17763.9020 (custom)
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Microsoft Windows 10 Version 21H2 Affected: 10.0.19044.0 , < 10.0.19044.7548 (custom)
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Microsoft Windows 10 Version 22H2 Affected: 10.0.19045.0 , < 10.0.19045.7548 (custom)
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Microsoft Windows 11 Version 24H2 Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.8875 (custom)
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Microsoft Windows 11 Version 25H2 Affected: 10.0.26200.0 , < 10.0.26200.8875 (custom)
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Microsoft Windows 11 version 26H1 Affected: 10.0.28000.0 , < 10.0.28000.2525 (custom)
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Microsoft Windows Server 2012 Affected: 6.2.9200.0 , < 6.2.9200.26226 (custom)
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Microsoft Windows Server 2012 (Server Core installation) Affected: 6.2.9200.0 , < 6.2.9200.26226 (custom)
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Microsoft Windows Server 2012 R2 Affected: 6.3.9600.0 , < 6.3.9600.23291 (custom)
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Microsoft Windows Server 2012 R2 (Server Core installation) Affected: 6.3.9600.0 , < 6.3.9600.23291 (custom)
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Microsoft Windows Server 2016 Affected: 10.0.14393.0 , < 10.0.14393.9339 (custom)
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Microsoft Windows Server 2016 (Server Core installation) Affected: 10.0.14393.0 , < 10.0.14393.9339 (custom)
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Microsoft Windows Server 2019 Affected: 10.0.17763.0 , < 10.0.17763.9020 (custom)
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Microsoft Windows Server 2019 (Server Core installation) Affected: 10.0.17763.0 , < 10.0.17763.9020 (custom)
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Microsoft Windows Server 2022 Affected: 10.0.20348.0 , < 10.0.20348.5386 (custom)
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Microsoft Windows Server 2025 Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.33158 (custom)
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Microsoft Windows Server 2025 (Server Core installation) Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.33158 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Date Public
2026-07-14 14:00
Show details on NVD website

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CVE-2026-50420 (GCVE-0-2026-50420)

Vulnerability from cvelistv5 – Published: 2026-07-14 17:07 – Updated: 2026-07-14 19:39
VLAI
Title
HTTP.sys Information Disclosure Vulnerability
Summary
Out-of-bounds read in Windows HTTP.sys allows an unauthorized attacker to disclose information locally.
CWE
Assigner
References
Impacted products
Vendor Product Version
Microsoft Windows 11 Version 24H2 Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.8875 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 11 Version 25H2 Affected: 10.0.26200.0 , < 10.0.26200.8875 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 11 version 26H1 Affected: 10.0.28000.0 , < 10.0.28000.2269 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2025 Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.33158 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2025 (Server Core installation) Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.33158 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Date Public
2026-07-14 14:00
Show details on NVD website

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CVE-2026-50408 (GCVE-0-2026-50408)

Vulnerability from cvelistv5 – Published: 2026-07-14 17:08 – Updated: 2026-07-14 19:40
VLAI
Title
Microsoft Excel Information Disclosure Vulnerability
Summary
Out-of-bounds read in Microsoft Office Excel allows an unauthorized attacker to disclose information locally.
CWE
Assigner
References
Impacted products
Vendor Product Version
Microsoft Microsoft 365 Apps for Enterprise Affected: 16.0.1 , < https://aka.ms/OfficeSecurityReleases (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Microsoft Excel 2016 Affected: 16.0.0.0 , < 16.0.5561.1001 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Microsoft Office 2019 Affected: 19.0.0 , < https://aka.ms/OfficeSecurityReleases (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Microsoft Office 365 for Mac Affected: 1.0.0 , < 16.111.26071215 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Microsoft Office LTSC 2021 Affected: 16.0.1 , < https://aka.ms/OfficeSecurityReleases (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Microsoft Office LTSC 2024 Affected: 16.0.0 , < https://aka.ms/OfficeSecurityReleases (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Microsoft Office LTSC for Mac 2021 Affected: 16.0.1 , < 16.111.26071215 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Microsoft Office LTSC for Mac 2024 Affected: 16.0.0 , < 16.111.26071215 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Office Online Server Affected: 16.0.0.0 , < 16.0.10417.20175 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Date Public
2026-07-14 14:00
Show details on NVD website

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CVE-2026-50401 (GCVE-0-2026-50401)

Vulnerability from cvelistv5 – Published: 2026-07-14 17:07 – Updated: 2026-07-15 13:29
VLAI
Title
Windows Cloud Files Mini Filter Driver Information Disclosure Vulnerability
Summary
Out-of-bounds read in Windows Cloud Files Mini Filter Driver allows an authorized attacker to disclose information locally.
SSVC
Exploitation: none Automatable: no Technical Impact: partial
CISA Coordinator (v2.0.3)
CWE
Assigner
References
Impacted products
Vendor Product Version
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 1809 Affected: 10.0.17763.0 , < 10.0.17763.9020 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 21H2 Affected: 10.0.19044.0 , < 10.0.19044.7548 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 22H2 Affected: 10.0.19045.0 , < 10.0.19045.7548 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 11 Version 24H2 Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.8875 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 11 Version 25H2 Affected: 10.0.26200.0 , < 10.0.26200.8875 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 11 version 26H1 Affected: 10.0.28000.0 , < 10.0.28000.2269 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2019 Affected: 10.0.17763.0 , < 10.0.17763.9020 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2019 (Server Core installation) Affected: 10.0.17763.0 , < 10.0.17763.9020 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2022 Affected: 10.0.20348.0 , < 10.0.20348.5386 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2025 Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.33158 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2025 (Server Core installation) Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.33158 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Date Public
2026-07-14 14:00
Show details on NVD website

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CVE-2026-50399 (GCVE-0-2026-50399)

Vulnerability from cvelistv5 – Published: 2026-07-14 17:07 – Updated: 2026-07-15 11:05
VLAI
Title
Windows Kernel Elevation of Privilege Vulnerability
Summary
Out-of-bounds read in Windows Kernel allows an authorized attacker to elevate privileges locally.
SSVC
Exploitation: none Automatable: no Technical Impact: total
CISA Coordinator (v2.0.3)
CWE
Assigner
References
Impacted products
Vendor Product Version
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 21H2 Affected: 10.0.19044.0 , < 10.0.19044.7548 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 10 Version 22H2 Affected: 10.0.19045.0 , < 10.0.19045.7548 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 11 Version 24H2 Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.8875 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 11 Version 25H2 Affected: 10.0.26200.0 , < 10.0.26200.8875 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows 11 version 26H1 Affected: 10.0.28000.0 , < 10.0.28000.2269 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2022 Affected: 10.0.20348.0 , < 10.0.20348.5386 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2025 Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.33158 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Microsoft Windows Server 2025 (Server Core installation) Affected: 10.0.26100.0 , < 10.0.26100.33158 (custom)
Create a notification for this product.
Date Public
2026-07-14 14:00
Show details on NVD website

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          "lang": "en-US",
          "value": "Out-of-bounds read in Windows Kernel allows an authorized attacker to elevate privileges locally."
        }
      ],
      "metrics": [
        {
          "cvssV3_1": {
            "baseScore": 7.8,
            "baseSeverity": "HIGH",
            "vectorString": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H/E:U/RL:O/RC:C",
            "version": "3.1"
          },
          "format": "CVSS",
          "scenarios": [
            {
              "lang": "en-US",
              "value": "GENERAL"
            }
          ]
        }
      ],
      "problemTypes": [
        {
          "descriptions": [
            {
              "cweId": "CWE-125",
              "description": "CWE-125: Out-of-bounds Read",
              "lang": "en-US",
              "type": "CWE"
            }
          ]
        }
      ],
      "providerMetadata": {
        "dateUpdated": "2026-07-14T19:39:37.020Z",
        "orgId": "f38d906d-7342-40ea-92c1-6c4a2c6478c8",
        "shortName": "microsoft"
      },
      "references": [
        {
          "name": "Windows Kernel Elevation of Privilege Vulnerability",
          "tags": [
            "vendor-advisory",
            "patch"
          ],
          "url": "https://msrc.microsoft.com/update-guide/vulnerability/CVE-2026-50399"
        }
      ],
      "title": "Windows Kernel Elevation of Privilege Vulnerability"
    }
  },
  "cveMetadata": {
    "assignerOrgId": "f38d906d-7342-40ea-92c1-6c4a2c6478c8",
    "assignerShortName": "microsoft",
    "cveId": "CVE-2026-50399",
    "datePublished": "2026-07-14T17:07:29.399Z",
    "dateReserved": "2026-06-04T18:56:53.258Z",
    "dateUpdated": "2026-07-15T11:05:53.755Z",
    "state": "PUBLISHED"
  },
  "dataType": "CVE_RECORD",
  "dataVersion": "5.2"
}

Mitigation MIT-5
Implementation

Strategy: Input Validation

  • Assume all input is malicious. Use an "accept known good" input validation strategy, i.e., use a list of acceptable inputs that strictly conform to specifications. Reject any input that does not strictly conform to specifications, or transform it into something that does.
  • When performing input validation, consider all potentially relevant properties, including length, type of input, the full range of acceptable values, missing or extra inputs, syntax, consistency across related fields, and conformance to business rules. As an example of business rule logic, "boat" may be syntactically valid because it only contains alphanumeric characters, but it is not valid if the input is only expected to contain colors such as "red" or "blue."
  • Do not rely exclusively on looking for malicious or malformed inputs. This is likely to miss at least one undesirable input, especially if the code's environment changes. This can give attackers enough room to bypass the intended validation. However, denylists can be useful for detecting potential attacks or determining which inputs are so malformed that they should be rejected outright.
  • To reduce the likelihood of introducing an out-of-bounds read, ensure that you validate and ensure correct calculations for any length argument, buffer size calculation, or offset. Be especially careful of relying on a sentinel (i.e. special character such as NUL) in untrusted inputs.
Mitigation
Architecture and Design

Strategy: Language Selection

Use a language that provides appropriate memory abstractions.

CAPEC-540: Overread Buffers

An adversary attacks a target by providing input that causes an application to read beyond the boundary of a defined buffer. This typically occurs when a value influencing where to start or stop reading is set to reflect positions outside of the valid memory location of the buffer. This type of attack may result in exposure of sensitive information, a system crash, or arbitrary code execution.