Common Weakness Enumeration
CWE-330
DiscouragedUse of Insufficiently Random Values
Abstraction: Class · Status: Stable
The product uses insufficiently random numbers or values in a security context that depends on unpredictable numbers.
445 vulnerabilities reference this CWE, most recent first.
CVE-2023-26451 (GCVE-0-2023-26451)
Vulnerability from cvelistv5 – Published: 2023-08-02 12:23 – Updated: 2024-08-02 11:53
VLAI
EPSS
VEX
Summary
Functions with insufficient randomness were used to generate authorization tokens of the integrated oAuth Authorization Service. Authorization codes were predictable for third parties and could be used to intercept and take over the client authorization process. As a result, other users accounts could be compromised. The oAuth Authorization Service is not enabled by default. We have updated the implementation to use sources with sufficient randomness to generate authorization tokens. No publicly available exploits are known.
Severity
7.5 (High)
CWE
- CWE-330 - Use of Insufficiently Random Values
Assigner
References
4 references
Impacted products
1 product
| Vendor | Product | Version | |
|---|---|---|---|
| OX Software GmbH | OX App Suite |
Affected:
0 , ≤ 8.11
(semver)
|
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CVE-2023-24478 (GCVE-0-2023-24478)
Vulnerability from cvelistv5 – Published: 2023-08-15 12:42 – Updated: 2024-10-01 18:24
VLAI
EPSS
VEX
Summary
Use of insufficiently random values for some Intel Agilex(R) software included as part of Intel(R) Quartus(R) Prime Pro Edition for linux before version 22.4 may allow an authenticated user to potentially enable information disclosure via local access.
Severity
5.5 (Medium)
SSVC
Exploitation: none
Automatable: no
Technical Impact: partial
CISA Coordinator (v2.0.3)
CWE
- information disclosure
- CWE-330 - Use of insufficiently random values
Assigner
References
1 reference
Impacted products
1 product
| Vendor | Product | Version | |
|---|---|---|---|
| n/a | Intel Agilex(R) software included as part of Intel(R) Quartus(R) Prime Pro Edition for linux |
Affected:
before version 22.4
|
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CVE-2023-22746 (GCVE-0-2023-22746)
Vulnerability from cvelistv5 – Published: 2023-02-03 21:07 – Updated: 2025-03-10 21:16
VLAI
EPSS
VEX
Title
CKAN is vulnerable to session secret shared across instances using Docker images
Summary
CKAN is an open-source DMS (data management system) for powering data hubs and data portals. When creating a new container based on one of the Docker images listed below, the same secret key was being used by default. If the users didn't set a custom value via environment variables in the `.env` file, that key was shared across different CKAN instances, making it easy to forge authentication requests. Users overriding the default secret key in their own `.env` file are not affected by this issue. Note that the legacy images (ckan/ckan) located in the main CKAN repo are not affected by this issue. The affected images are ckan/ckan-docker, (ckan/ckan-base images), okfn/docker-ckan (openknowledge/ckan-base and openknowledge/ckan-dev images)
keitaroinc/docker-ckan (keitaro/ckan images).
Severity
8.6 (High)
SSVC
Exploitation: none
Automatable: yes
Technical Impact: partial
CISA Coordinator (v2.0.3)
CWE
Assigner
References
3 references
| URL | Tags |
|---|---|
| https://github.com/ckan/ckan/security/advisories/… | x_refsource_CONFIRM |
| https://github.com/ckan/ckan/commit/44af0f0a148fc… | x_refsource_MISC |
| https://github.com/ckan/ckan/commit/4c22c135fa486… | x_refsource_MISC |
Impacted products
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CVE-2023-22601 (GCVE-0-2023-22601)
Vulnerability from cvelistv5 – Published: 2023-01-12 22:34 – Updated: 2025-01-16 22:02
VLAI
EPSS
VEX
Summary
InHand Networks InRouter 302, prior to version IR302 V3.5.56, and InRouter 615, prior to version InRouter6XX-S-V2.3.0.r5542, contain vulnerability CWE-330: Use of Insufficiently Random Values. They do not properly randomize MQTT ClientID parameters. An unauthorized user could calculate this parameter and use it to gather additional information about other InHand devices managed on the same cloud platform.
Severity
10 (Critical)
SSVC
Exploitation: none
Automatable: yes
Technical Impact: partial
CISA Coordinator (v2.0.3)
CWE
- CWE-330 - Use of Insufficiently Random Values
Assigner
References
1 reference
| URL | Tags |
|---|---|
| https://www.cisa.gov/uscert/ics/advisories/icsa-2… | government-resource |
Impacted products
2 products
| Vendor | Product | Version | |
|---|---|---|---|
| InHand Networks | InRouter 302 |
Affected:
0 , < IR302 V3.5.56
(custom)
|
|
| InHand Networks | InRouter 615 |
Affected:
0 , < InRouter6XX-S-V2.3.0.r5542
(custom)
|
Credits
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CVE-2023-20185 (GCVE-0-2023-20185)
Vulnerability from cvelistv5 – Published: 2023-07-12 13:50 – Updated: 2024-08-02 09:05
VLAI
EPSS
VEX
Summary
A vulnerability in the Cisco ACI Multi-Site CloudSec encryption feature of Cisco Nexus 9000 Series Fabric Switches in ACI mode could allow an unauthenticated, remote attacker to read or modify intersite encrypted traffic.
This vulnerability is due to an issue with the implementation of the ciphers that are used by the CloudSec encryption feature on affected switches. An attacker with an on-path position between the ACI sites could exploit this vulnerability by intercepting intersite encrypted traffic and using cryptanalytic techniques to break the encryption. A successful exploit could allow the attacker to read or modify the traffic that is transmitted between the sites.
Cisco has not released and will not release software updates that address this vulnerability.
Severity
7.4 (High)
CWE
- CWE-330 - Use of Insufficiently Random Values
Assigner
References
1 reference
Impacted products
1 product
| Vendor | Product | Version | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cisco | Cisco NX-OS System Software in ACI Mode |
Affected:
14.0(1h)
Affected: 14.0(2c) Affected: 14.0(3d) Affected: 14.0(3c) Affected: 14.1(1i) Affected: 14.1(1j) Affected: 14.1(1k) Affected: 14.1(1l) Affected: 14.1(2g) Affected: 14.1(2m) Affected: 14.1(2o) Affected: 14.1(2s) Affected: 14.1(2u) Affected: 14.1(2w) Affected: 14.1(2x) Affected: 14.2(1i) Affected: 14.2(1j) Affected: 14.2(1l) Affected: 14.2(2e) Affected: 14.2(2f) Affected: 14.2(2g) Affected: 14.2(3j) Affected: 14.2(3l) Affected: 14.2(3n) Affected: 14.2(3q) Affected: 14.2(4i) Affected: 14.2(4k) Affected: 14.2(4o) Affected: 14.2(4p) Affected: 14.2(5k) Affected: 14.2(5l) Affected: 14.2(5n) Affected: 14.2(6d) Affected: 14.2(6g) Affected: 14.2(6h) Affected: 14.2(6l) Affected: 14.2(7f) Affected: 14.2(7l) Affected: 14.2(6o) Affected: 14.2(7q) Affected: 14.2(7r) Affected: 14.2(7s) Affected: 14.2(7t) Affected: 14.2(7u) Affected: 14.2(7v) Affected: 14.2(7w) Affected: 15.0(1k) Affected: 15.0(1l) Affected: 15.0(2e) Affected: 15.0(2h) Affected: 15.1(1h) Affected: 15.1(2e) Affected: 15.1(3e) Affected: 15.1(4c) Affected: 15.2(1g) Affected: 15.2(2e) Affected: 15.2(2f) Affected: 15.2(2g) Affected: 15.2(2h) Affected: 15.2(3e) Affected: 15.2(3f) Affected: 15.2(3g) Affected: 15.2(4d) Affected: 15.2(4e) Affected: 15.2(5c) Affected: 15.2(5d) Affected: 15.2(5e) Affected: 15.2(4f) Affected: 15.2(6e) Affected: 15.2(6g) Affected: 15.2(7f) Affected: 15.2(7g) Affected: 15.2(8d) Affected: 15.2(8e) Affected: 15.2(8f) Affected: 15.2(8g) Affected: 15.2(8h) Affected: 16.0(1g) Affected: 16.0(1j) Affected: 16.0(2h) Affected: 16.0(2j) Affected: 16.0(3d) Affected: 16.0(3e) Affected: 15.3(1d) |
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CVE-2023-6799 (GCVE-0-2023-6799)
Vulnerability from cvelistv5 – Published: 2024-04-09 18:58 – Updated: 2026-04-08 16:58
VLAI
EPSS
VEX
Title
WP Reset <= 2.0 - Sensitive Information Exposure due to Insufficient Randomness
Summary
The WP Reset – Most Advanced WordPress Reset Tool plugin for WordPress is vulnerable to Sensitive Information Exposure in all versions up to, and including, 2.0 via the use of insufficiently random snapshot names. This makes it possible for unauthenticated attackers to extract sensitive data including site backups by brute-forcing the snapshot filenames. Please note that the vendor does not plan to do any further hardening on this functionality.
Severity
5.9 (Medium)
SSVC
Exploitation: none
Automatable: no
Technical Impact: partial
CISA Coordinator (v2.0.3)
CWE
- CWE-330 - Use of Insufficiently Random Values
Assigner
References
Impacted products
1 product
| Vendor | Product | Version | |
|---|---|---|---|
| webfactory | WP Reset |
Affected:
0 , ≤ 2.0
(semver)
|
Credits
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CVE-2023-6376 (GCVE-0-2023-6376)
Vulnerability from cvelistv5 – Published: 2023-11-30 17:55 – Updated: 2024-08-02 08:28
VLAI
EPSS
VEX
Title
Henschen & Associates court document management software cache uses predictable file names
Summary
Henschen & Associates court document management software does not sufficiently randomize file names of cached documents, allowing a remote, unauthenticated attacker to access restricted documents.
Severity
5.3 (Medium)
CWE
- CWE-330 - Use of Insufficiently Random Values
Assigner
References
4 references
| URL | Tags |
|---|---|
| https://www.henschen.com/government | product |
| https://github.com/qwell/disorder-in-the-court/bl… | |
| https://techcrunch.com/2023/11/30/us-court-record… | media-coverage |
| https://www.cisa.gov/news-events/alerts/2023/11/3… | government-resourcethird-party-advisory |
Impacted products
1 product
| Vendor | Product | Version | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Henschen & Associates | court document management software |
Affected:
0 , < ~2023-11-22
(custom)
|
Date Public
2023-11-30 17:00
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"value": "\u003cdiv\u003eHenschen \u0026amp; Associates court document management software does not sufficiently randomize file names of cached documents, allowing a remote, unauthenticated attacker to access restricted documents.\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"
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],
"value": "Henschen \u0026 Associates court document management software does not sufficiently randomize file names of cached documents, allowing a remote, unauthenticated attacker to access restricted documents.\n\n\n"
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"attackVector": "NETWORK",
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"url": "https://www.henschen.com/government"
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{
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"tags": [
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"url": "https://techcrunch.com/2023/11/30/us-court-records-systems-vulnerabilities-exposed-sealed-documents/"
},
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"url": "https://www.cisa.gov/news-events/alerts/2023/11/30/multiple-vulnerabilities-affecting-web-based-court-case-and-document-management-systems"
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"source": {
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"title": "Henschen \u0026 Associates court document management software cache uses predictable file names",
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CVE-2023-4462 (GCVE-0-2023-4462)
Vulnerability from cvelistv5 – Published: 2023-12-29 09:31 – Updated: 2024-08-02 07:31
VLAI
EPSS
VEX
Title
Poly VVX 601 Web Configuration Application random values
Summary
A vulnerability classified as problematic has been found in Poly Trio 8300, Trio 8500, Trio 8800, Trio C60, CCX 350, CCX 400, CCX 500, CCX 505, CCX 600, CCX 700, EDGE E100, EDGE E220, EDGE E300, EDGE E320, EDGE E350, EDGE E400, EDGE E450, EDGE E500, EDGE E550, VVX 101, VVX 150, VVX 201, VVX 250, VVX 300, VVX 301, VVX 310, VVX 311, VVX 350, VVX 400, VVX 401, VVX 410, VVX 411, VVX 450, VVX 500, VVX 501, VVX 600 and VVX 601. This affects an unknown part of the component Web Configuration Application. The manipulation leads to insufficiently random values. It is possible to initiate the attack remotely. The complexity of an attack is rather high. The exploitability is told to be difficult. The exploit has been disclosed to the public and may be used. The associated identifier of this vulnerability is VDB-249255.
Severity
CWE
- CWE-330 - Insufficiently Random Values
Assigner
References
6 references
| URL | Tags |
|---|---|
| https://vuldb.com/?id.249255 | vdb-entry |
| https://vuldb.com/?ctiid.249255 | signaturepermissions-required |
| https://modzero.com/en/advisories/mz-23-01-poly-voip/ | related |
| https://support.hp.com/us-en/document/ish_9929296… | related |
| https://github.com/modzero/MZ-23-01-Poly-VoIP-Devices | exploit |
| https://fahrplan.events.ccc.de/congress/2023/fahr… | related |
Impacted products
37 products
| Vendor | Product | Version | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Poly | Trio 8300 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | Trio 8500 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | Trio 8800 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | Trio C60 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | CCX 350 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | CCX 400 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | CCX 500 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | CCX 505 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | CCX 600 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | CCX 700 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | EDGE E100 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | EDGE E220 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | EDGE E300 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | EDGE E320 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | EDGE E350 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | EDGE E400 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | EDGE E450 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | EDGE E500 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | EDGE E550 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | VVX 101 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | VVX 150 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | VVX 201 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | VVX 250 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | VVX 300 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | VVX 301 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | VVX 310 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | VVX 311 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | VVX 350 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | VVX 400 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | VVX 401 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | VVX 410 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | VVX 411 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | VVX 450 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | VVX 500 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | VVX 501 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | VVX 600 |
Affected:
n/a
|
|
| Poly | VVX 601 |
Affected:
n/a
|
Credits
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"product": "Trio 8300",
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"product": "CCX 505",
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"versions": [
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"versions": [
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"modules": [
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"product": "EDGE E100",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
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"status": "affected",
"version": "n/a"
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},
{
"modules": [
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"product": "EDGE E220",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
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"version": "n/a"
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"modules": [
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"product": "EDGE E300",
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"versions": [
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},
{
"modules": [
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"product": "EDGE E320",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
{
"status": "affected",
"version": "n/a"
}
]
},
{
"modules": [
"Web Configuration Application"
],
"product": "EDGE E350",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
{
"status": "affected",
"version": "n/a"
}
]
},
{
"modules": [
"Web Configuration Application"
],
"product": "EDGE E400",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
{
"status": "affected",
"version": "n/a"
}
]
},
{
"modules": [
"Web Configuration Application"
],
"product": "EDGE E450",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
{
"status": "affected",
"version": "n/a"
}
]
},
{
"modules": [
"Web Configuration Application"
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"product": "EDGE E500",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
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"status": "affected",
"version": "n/a"
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},
{
"modules": [
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"product": "EDGE E550",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
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"status": "affected",
"version": "n/a"
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},
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"modules": [
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"product": "VVX 101",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
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"version": "n/a"
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"modules": [
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"product": "VVX 150",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
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"status": "affected",
"version": "n/a"
}
]
},
{
"modules": [
"Web Configuration Application"
],
"product": "VVX 201",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
{
"status": "affected",
"version": "n/a"
}
]
},
{
"modules": [
"Web Configuration Application"
],
"product": "VVX 250",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
{
"status": "affected",
"version": "n/a"
}
]
},
{
"modules": [
"Web Configuration Application"
],
"product": "VVX 300",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
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"status": "affected",
"version": "n/a"
}
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},
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"modules": [
"Web Configuration Application"
],
"product": "VVX 301",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
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"status": "affected",
"version": "n/a"
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"modules": [
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"product": "VVX 310",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
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"status": "affected",
"version": "n/a"
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},
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"modules": [
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"product": "VVX 311",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
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"versions": [
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"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
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"product": "VVX 410",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
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"status": "affected",
"version": "n/a"
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},
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"modules": [
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"product": "VVX 411",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
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"status": "affected",
"version": "n/a"
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},
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"modules": [
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"product": "VVX 450",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
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"status": "affected",
"version": "n/a"
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},
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"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
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"product": "VVX 501",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
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"version": "n/a"
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"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
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"modules": [
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"product": "VVX 601",
"vendor": "Poly",
"versions": [
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"status": "affected",
"version": "n/a"
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"credits": [
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"lang": "en",
"type": "finder",
"value": "Christoph Wolff"
},
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"lang": "en",
"type": "finder",
"value": "Pascal Zenker"
}
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"lang": "en",
"value": "A vulnerability classified as problematic has been found in Poly Trio 8300, Trio 8500, Trio 8800, Trio C60, CCX 350, CCX 400, CCX 500, CCX 505, CCX 600, CCX 700, EDGE E100, EDGE E220, EDGE E300, EDGE E320, EDGE E350, EDGE E400, EDGE E450, EDGE E500, EDGE E550, VVX 101, VVX 150, VVX 201, VVX 250, VVX 300, VVX 301, VVX 310, VVX 311, VVX 350, VVX 400, VVX 401, VVX 410, VVX 411, VVX 450, VVX 500, VVX 501, VVX 600 and VVX 601. This affects an unknown part of the component Web Configuration Application. The manipulation leads to insufficiently random values. It is possible to initiate the attack remotely. The complexity of an attack is rather high. The exploitability is told to be difficult. The exploit has been disclosed to the public and may be used. The associated identifier of this vulnerability is VDB-249255."
},
{
"lang": "de",
"value": "Es wurde eine Schwachstelle in Poly Trio 8300, Trio 8500, Trio 8800, Trio C60, CCX 350, CCX 400, CCX 500, CCX 505, CCX 600, CCX 700, EDGE E100, EDGE E220, EDGE E300, EDGE E320, EDGE E350, EDGE E400, EDGE E450, EDGE E500, EDGE E550, VVX 101, VVX 150, VVX 201, VVX 250, VVX 300, VVX 301, VVX 310, VVX 311, VVX 350, VVX 400, VVX 401, VVX 410, VVX 411, VVX 450, VVX 500, VVX 501, VVX 600 and VVX 601 entdeckt. Sie wurde als problematisch eingestuft. Es betrifft eine unbekannte Funktion der Komponente Web Configuration Application. Mittels Manipulieren mit unbekannten Daten kann eine insufficiently random values-Schwachstelle ausgenutzt werden. Der Angriff kann \u00fcber das Netzwerk erfolgen. Die Komplexit\u00e4t eines Angriffs ist eher hoch. Sie ist schwierig auszunutzen. Der Exploit steht zur \u00f6ffentlichen Verf\u00fcgung."
}
],
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CVE-2023-3803 (GCVE-0-2023-3803)
Vulnerability from cvelistv5 – Published: 2023-07-21 00:31 – Updated: 2024-08-02 07:08
VLAI
EPSS
VEX
Title
Chengdu Flash Flood Disaster Monitoring and Warning System File Name ImageStationDataService.asmx random values
Summary
A vulnerability classified as problematic has been found in Chengdu Flash Flood Disaster Monitoring and Warning System 2.0. This affects an unknown part of the file /Service/ImageStationDataService.asmx of the component File Name Handler. The manipulation leads to insufficiently random values. The complexity of an attack is rather high. The exploitability is told to be difficult. The exploit has been disclosed to the public and may be used. The associated identifier of this vulnerability is VDB-235071. NOTE: The vendor was contacted early about this disclosure but did not respond in any way.
Severity
CWE
- CWE-330 - Insufficiently Random Values
Assigner
References
3 references
| URL | Tags |
|---|---|
| https://vuldb.com/?id.235071 | vdb-entry |
| https://vuldb.com/?ctiid.235071 | signaturepermissions-required |
| https://github.com/GUIqizsq/cve/blob/main/upload_2.md | exploit |
Impacted products
1 product
| Vendor | Product | Version | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Chengdu | Flash Flood Disaster Monitoring and Warning System |
Affected:
2.0
|
Credits
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CVE-2023-3247 (GCVE-0-2023-3247)
Vulnerability from cvelistv5 – Published: 2023-07-22 04:17 – Updated: 2024-10-15 20:34
VLAI
EPSS
VEX
Title
Missing error check and insufficient random bytes in HTTP Digest authentication for SOAP
Summary
In PHP versions 8.0.* before 8.0.29, 8.1.* before 8.1.20, 8.2.* before 8.2.7 when using SOAP HTTP Digest Authentication, random value generator was not checked for failure, and was using narrower range of values than it should have. In case of random generator failure, it could lead to a disclosure of 31 bits of uninitialized memory from the client to the server, and it also made easier to a malicious server to guess the client's nonce.
Severity
SSVC
Exploitation: none
Automatable: no
Technical Impact: partial
CISA Coordinator (v2.0.3)
Assigner
References
1 reference
Impacted products
Credits
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Mitigation
Architecture and Design
- Use a well-vetted algorithm that is currently considered to be strong by experts in the field, and select well-tested implementations with adequate length seeds.
- In general, if a pseudo-random number generator is not advertised as being cryptographically secure, then it is probably a statistical PRNG and should not be used in security-sensitive contexts.
- Pseudo-random number generators can produce predictable numbers if the generator is known and the seed can be guessed. A 256-bit seed is a good starting point for producing a "random enough" number.
Mitigation
Implementation
Consider a PRNG that re-seeds itself as needed from high quality pseudo-random output sources, such as hardware devices.
Mitigation MIT-2
Architecture and Design
Requirements
Strategy: Libraries or Frameworks
Use products or modules that conform to FIPS 140-2 [REF-267] to avoid obvious entropy problems. Consult FIPS 140-2 Annex C ("Approved Random Number Generators").
CAPEC-112: Brute Force
In this attack, some asset (information, functionality, identity, etc.) is protected by a finite secret value. The attacker attempts to gain access to this asset by using trial-and-error to exhaustively explore all the possible secret values in the hope of finding the secret (or a value that is functionally equivalent) that will unlock the asset.
CAPEC-485: Signature Spoofing by Key Recreation
An attacker obtains an authoritative or reputable signer's private signature key by exploiting a cryptographic weakness in the signature algorithm or pseudorandom number generation and then uses this key to forge signatures from the original signer to mislead a victim into performing actions that benefit the attacker.
CAPEC-59: Session Credential Falsification through Prediction
This attack targets predictable session ID in order to gain privileges. The attacker can predict the session ID used during a transaction to perform spoofing and session hijacking.