CWE-190
AllowedInteger Overflow or Wraparound
Abstraction: Base · Status: Stable
The product performs a calculation that can produce an integer overflow or wraparound when the logic assumes that the resulting value will always be larger than the original value. This occurs when an integer value is incremented to a value that is too large to store in the associated representation. When this occurs, the value may become a very small or negative number.
3866 vulnerabilities reference this CWE, most recent first.
GHSA-XQMP-FXGV-XVQ5
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-03-30 13:04 – Updated: 2026-04-06 23:13Description
Summary
The Rust libp2p Gossipsub implementation contains a remotely reachable panic in backoff expiry handling.
After a peer sends a crafted PRUNE control message with an attacker-controlled, near-maximum backoff value, the value is accepted and stored as an Instant near the representable upper bound. On a later heartbeat, the implementation performs unchecked Instant + Duration arithmetic (backoff_time + slack), which can overflow and panic with:
overflow when adding duration to instant
This issue is reachable from any Gossipsub peer over normal TCP + Noise + mplex/yamux connectivity and requires no further authentication beyond becoming a protocol peer.
Attack Scenario
An attacker that can establish a libp2p Gossipsub session with a target node can crash the target by sending crafted PRUNE control data:
1. Establish a standard libp2p session (TCP + Noise) and negotiate a stream multiplexer (mplex/yamux).
2. Open a Gossipsub stream and send an RPC containing ControlPrune with a very large backoff (chosen near boundary conditions, e.g. ~ i64::MAX - victim_uptime_seconds; example observed: 9223372036854674580 for ~28h uptime).
3. The value is parsed from protobuf and passed through Behaviour::handle_prune() into mesh/backoff update logic.
4. Initial storage path uses checked addition (Instant::now().checked_add(...)), so the malicious near-max value is retained.
5. On the next heartbeat (typically within ~43–74s), expiry logic computes backoff_time + slack using unchecked addition, which overflows and panics.
Impact
Remote unauthenticated denial of service (critical).
Any application exposing an affected libp2p-gossipsub listener can be crashed by a network-reachable peer that sends crafted PRUNE backoff values. The crash is triggered during heartbeat processing (not immediately at PRUNE parse time), and can be repeated by reconnecting and replaying the message.
Differences from CVE-2026-33040
This advisory is related to CVE-2026-33040 but it is not the same defect. CVE-2026-33040 addressed overflow during backoff insertion by adding checked arithmetic when converting PRUNE backoff into an Instant. The issue in this advisory occurs at a different location and at a different time: a near-maximum backoff can still be stored successfully, and the crash happens later in the heartbeat path when slack is added to that stored Instant using unchecked arithmetic. This report covers a distinct secondary overflow path in heartbeat expiry handling that remained reachable after the original insertion-side hardening.
This vulnerability was originally reported by the Security team of the Ethereum Foundation.
{
"affected": [
{
"package": {
"ecosystem": "crates.io",
"name": "libp2p-gossipsub"
},
"ranges": [
{
"events": [
{
"introduced": "0"
},
{
"fixed": "0.49.4"
}
],
"type": "ECOSYSTEM"
}
]
}
],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2026-34219"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190",
"CWE-617"
],
"github_reviewed": true,
"github_reviewed_at": "2026-03-30T13:04:03Z",
"nvd_published_at": "2026-03-31T16:16:31Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "## Description\n### Summary\nThe Rust libp2p Gossipsub implementation contains a remotely reachable panic in `backoff` expiry handling. \nAfter a peer sends a crafted `PRUNE` control message with an attacker-controlled, near-maximum `backoff` value, the value is accepted and stored as an `Instant` near the representable upper bound. On a later heartbeat, the implementation performs unchecked `Instant + Duration` arithmetic (`backoff_time + slack`), which can overflow and panic with:\n`overflow when adding duration to instant`\nThis issue is reachable from any Gossipsub peer over normal `TCP + Noise + mplex/yamux` connectivity and requires no further authentication beyond becoming a protocol peer.\n### Attack Scenario\nAn attacker that can establish a libp2p Gossipsub session with a target node can crash the target by sending crafted `PRUNE` control data:\n1. Establish a standard libp2p session (`TCP + Noise`) and negotiate a stream multiplexer (`mplex`/`yamux`).\n2. Open a Gossipsub stream and send an RPC containing `ControlPrune` with a very large `backoff` (chosen near boundary conditions, e.g. `~ i64::MAX - victim_uptime_seconds`; example observed: `9223372036854674580` for ~28h uptime).\n3. The value is parsed from protobuf and passed through `Behaviour::handle_prune()` into mesh/backoff update logic.\n4. Initial storage path uses checked addition (`Instant::now().checked_add(...)`), so the malicious near-max value is retained.\n5. On the next heartbeat (typically within ~43\u201374s), expiry logic computes `backoff_time + slack` using unchecked addition, which overflows and panics.\n### Impact\nRemote unauthenticated denial of service (critical). \nAny application exposing an affected `libp2p-gossipsub` listener can be crashed by a network-reachable peer that sends crafted `PRUNE` backoff values. The crash is triggered during heartbeat processing (not immediately at PRUNE parse time), and can be repeated by reconnecting and replaying the message.\n\n### Differences from CVE-2026-33040\nThis advisory is related to CVE-2026-33040 but it is not the same defect. CVE-2026-33040 addressed overflow during backoff insertion by adding checked arithmetic when converting PRUNE backoff into an Instant. The issue in this advisory occurs at a different location and at a different time: a near-maximum backoff can still be stored successfully, and the crash happens later in the heartbeat path when slack is added to that stored Instant using unchecked arithmetic. This report covers a distinct secondary overflow path in heartbeat expiry handling that remained reachable after the original insertion-side hardening.\n\nThis vulnerability was originally reported by the Security team of the Ethereum Foundation.",
"id": "GHSA-xqmp-fxgv-xvq5",
"modified": "2026-04-06T23:13:23Z",
"published": "2026-03-30T13:04:03Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/libp2p/rust-libp2p/security/advisories/GHSA-xqmp-fxgv-xvq5"
},
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2026-34219"
},
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://github.com/advisories/GHSA-gc42-3jg7-rxr2"
},
{
"type": "PACKAGE",
"url": "https://github.com/libp2p/rust-libp2p"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:H/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:N/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
},
{
"score": "CVSS:4.0/AV:N/AC:L/AT:P/PR:N/UI:N/VC:N/VI:N/VA:H/SC:N/SI:N/SA:N",
"type": "CVSS_V4"
}
],
"summary": "libp2p-gossipsub: Remote crash via unchecked Instant overflow in heartbeat backoff expiry handling"
}
GHSA-XQP3-6VPP-G4F2
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-24 16:44 – Updated: 2022-05-26 00:01DaviewIndy 8.98.7 and earlier versions have a Integer overflow vulnerability, triggered when the user opens a malformed PhotoShop file that is mishandled by Daview.exe. Attackers could exploit this and arbitrary code execution.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2019-9138"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2019-04-25T18:29:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "DaviewIndy 8.98.7 and earlier versions have a Integer overflow vulnerability, triggered when the user opens a malformed PhotoShop file that is mishandled by Daview.exe. Attackers could exploit this and arbitrary code execution.",
"id": "GHSA-xqp3-6vpp-g4f2",
"modified": "2022-05-26T00:01:09Z",
"published": "2022-05-24T16:44:42Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2019-9138"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.krcert.or.kr/krcert/secNoticeView.do?bulletin_writing_sequence=34995"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-XQQH-JW9F-JFCC
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-14 03:42 – Updated: 2022-05-14 03:42Huawei DP300 V500R002C00, RP200 V500R002C00, V600R006C00, TE30 V100R001C10, V500R002C00, V600R006C00, TE40 V500R002C00, V600R006C00, TE50 V500R002C00, V600R006C00, TE60 V100R001C10, V500R002C00, V600R006C00 have an integer overflow vulnerability. Due to insufficient input validation, an authenticated, remote attacker could send malformed SOAP packets to the target device. Successful exploit could cause an integer overflow and might reset a process.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2017-17183"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2018-02-15T16:29:00Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "Huawei DP300 V500R002C00, RP200 V500R002C00, V600R006C00, TE30 V100R001C10, V500R002C00, V600R006C00, TE40 V500R002C00, V600R006C00, TE50 V500R002C00, V600R006C00, TE60 V100R001C10, V500R002C00, V600R006C00 have an integer overflow vulnerability. Due to insufficient input validation, an authenticated, remote attacker could send malformed SOAP packets to the target device. Successful exploit could cause an integer overflow and might reset a process.",
"id": "GHSA-xqqh-jw9f-jfcc",
"modified": "2022-05-14T03:42:20Z",
"published": "2022-05-14T03:42:20Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2017-17183"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.huawei.com/en/psirt/security-advisories/huawei-sa-20180207-01-soap-en"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:N/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:N/A:L",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-XQRH-6C7Q-6XM3
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-14 03:01 – Updated: 2022-05-14 03:01The sell function of a smart contract implementation for R Time Token v3 (RS) (Contract Name: RTokenMain), an Ethereum token, has an integer overflow in which "amount * sellPrice" can be zero, consequently reducing a seller's assets.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2018-13223"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2018-07-05T02:29:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "The sell function of a smart contract implementation for R Time Token v3 (RS) (Contract Name: RTokenMain), an Ethereum token, has an integer overflow in which \"amount * sellPrice\" can be zero, consequently reducing a seller\u0027s assets.",
"id": "GHSA-xqrh-6c7q-6xm3",
"modified": "2022-05-14T03:01:48Z",
"published": "2022-05-14T03:01:48Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2018-13223"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/BlockChainsSecurity/EtherTokens/blob/master/ETHEREUMBLACK/sell%20integer%20overflow.md"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/BlockChainsSecurity/EtherTokens/tree/master/RTokenMain"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:H/A:N",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-XQW9-F65G-5QXW
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-06-21 18:32 – Updated: 2026-06-21 18:32libexpat before 2.8.2 has an integer overflow in storeAtts.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2026-56403"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2026-06-21T16:16:26Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "libexpat before 2.8.2 has an integer overflow in storeAtts.",
"id": "GHSA-xqw9-f65g-5qxw",
"modified": "2026-06-21T18:32:18Z",
"published": "2026-06-21T18:32:18Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2026-56403"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/libexpat/libexpat/pull/1232"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:H/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:L",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-XQWG-V65R-HVF2
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-24 16:50 – Updated: 2022-06-21 00:00The Sleuth Kit 4.6.0 and earlier is affected by: Integer Overflow. The impact is: Opening crafted disk image triggers crash in tsk/fs/hfs_dent.c:237. The component is: Overflow in fls tool used on HFS image. Bug is in tsk/fs/hfs.c file in function hfs_cat_traverse() in lines: 952, 1062. The attack vector is: Victim must open a crafted HFS filesystem image.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2019-1010065"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2019-07-18T17:15:00Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "The Sleuth Kit 4.6.0 and earlier is affected by: Integer Overflow. The impact is: Opening crafted disk image triggers crash in tsk/fs/hfs_dent.c:237. The component is: Overflow in fls tool used on HFS image. Bug is in tsk/fs/hfs.c file in function hfs_cat_traverse() in lines: 952, 1062. The attack vector is: Victim must open a crafted HFS filesystem image.",
"id": "GHSA-xqwg-v65r-hvf2",
"modified": "2022-06-21T00:00:45Z",
"published": "2022-05-24T16:50:37Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2019-1010065"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/sleuthkit/sleuthkit/commit/114cd3d0aac8bd1aeaf4b33840feb0163d342d5b"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://issuetracker.google.com/issues/77809383"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.debian.org/debian-lts-announce/2022/06/msg00015.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.fedoraproject.org/archives/list/package-announce@lists.fedoraproject.org/message/6VXDAP6SEO3RCDCZITTFGNZGSVPE5CTY"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.fedoraproject.org/archives/list/package-announce@lists.fedoraproject.org/message/FGWCQIZKTDCJO4YGL5LGPYFNOVU7SJRX"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:N/I:N/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-XQX4-CXCJ-G6C3
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-14 03:05 – Updated: 2022-05-14 03:05The mintToken function of a smart contract implementation for JavaSwapTest (JST), an Ethereum token, has an integer overflow.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2018-13145"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2018-07-04T15:29:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "The mintToken function of a smart contract implementation for JavaSwapTest (JST), an Ethereum token, has an integer overflow.",
"id": "GHSA-xqx4-cxcj-g6c3",
"modified": "2022-05-14T03:05:36Z",
"published": "2022-05-14T03:05:36Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2018-13145"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/safecomet/EtherTokens/blob/master/JavaSwapTest%20(JST)/JavaSwapTest%20(JST).md"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:H/A:N",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-XR2G-57FM-4F25
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-06-02 00:31 – Updated: 2026-06-02 00:31In multiple functions of ubsan_throwing_runtime.cpp, there is a possible persistent denial of service due to an integer overflow. This could lead to local escalation of privilege with no additional execution privileges needed. User interaction is not needed for exploitation.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2026-0043"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2026-06-01T22:16:20Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "In multiple functions of ubsan_throwing_runtime.cpp, there is a possible persistent denial of service due to an integer overflow. This could lead to local escalation of privilege with no additional execution privileges needed. User interaction is not needed for exploitation.",
"id": "GHSA-xr2g-57fm-4f25",
"modified": "2026-06-02T00:31:56Z",
"published": "2026-06-02T00:31:56Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2026-0043"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://source.android.com/docs/security/bulletin/2026/2026-06-01"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:N/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-XR69-67V4-F3FM
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-14 01:52 – Updated: 2022-05-14 01:52Integer overflow may happen when calculating an internal structure size due to lack of validation of the input length in Snapdragon Mobile, Snapdragon Wear in version MDM9206, MDM9607, MDM9650, SD 210/SD 212/SD 205, SD 425, SD 427, SD 430, SD 435, SD 450, SD 625, SD 835, SD 845, SD 850, SDA660, SDM429, SDM439, SDM630, SDM632, SDM636, SDM660, SDM710, Snapdragon_High_Med_2016.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2018-11865"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2018-10-29T18:29:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "Integer overflow may happen when calculating an internal structure size due to lack of validation of the input length in Snapdragon Mobile, Snapdragon Wear in version MDM9206, MDM9607, MDM9650, SD 210/SD 212/SD 205, SD 425, SD 427, SD 430, SD 435, SD 450, SD 625, SD 835, SD 845, SD 850, SDA660, SDM429, SDM439, SDM630, SDM632, SDM636, SDM660, SDM710, Snapdragon_High_Med_2016.",
"id": "GHSA-xr69-67v4-f3fm",
"modified": "2022-05-14T01:52:00Z",
"published": "2022-05-14T01:52:00Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2018-11865"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.qualcomm.com/company/product-security/bulletins"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-XR7X-CGG3-Q7VW
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2025-10-14 12:31 – Updated: 2025-10-14 15:31In gnss driver, there is a possible out of bounds read due to an integer overflow. This could lead to local information disclosure if a malicious actor has already obtained the System privilege. User interaction is not needed for exploitation. Patch ID: ALPS09920036; Issue ID: MSV-3798.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2025-20722"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2025-10-14T10:15:37Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "In gnss driver, there is a possible out of bounds read due to an integer overflow. This could lead to local information disclosure if a malicious actor has already obtained the System privilege. User interaction is not needed for exploitation. Patch ID: ALPS09920036; Issue ID: MSV-3798.",
"id": "GHSA-xr7x-cgg3-q7vw",
"modified": "2025-10-14T15:31:25Z",
"published": "2025-10-14T12:31:31Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2025-20722"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://corp.mediatek.com/product-security-bulletin/October-2025"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:N/A:N",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
Mitigation
Ensure that all protocols are strictly defined, such that all out-of-bounds behavior can be identified simply, and require strict conformance to the protocol.
Mitigation MIT-3
Strategy: Language Selection
- Use a language that does not allow this weakness to occur or provides constructs that make this weakness easier to avoid.
- If possible, choose a language or compiler that performs automatic bounds checking.
Mitigation MIT-4
Strategy: Libraries or Frameworks
- Use a vetted library or framework that does not allow this weakness to occur or provides constructs that make this weakness easier to avoid [REF-1482].
- Use libraries or frameworks that make it easier to handle numbers without unexpected consequences.
- Examples include safe integer handling packages such as SafeInt (C++) or IntegerLib (C or C++). [REF-106]
Mitigation MIT-8
Strategy: Input Validation
- Perform input validation on any numeric input by ensuring that it is within the expected range. Enforce that the input meets both the minimum and maximum requirements for the expected range.
- Use unsigned integers where possible. This makes it easier to perform validation for integer overflows. When signed integers are required, ensure that the range check includes minimum values as well as maximum values.
Mitigation MIT-36
- Understand the programming language's underlying representation and how it interacts with numeric calculation (CWE-681). Pay close attention to byte size discrepancies, precision, signed/unsigned distinctions, truncation, conversion and casting between types, "not-a-number" calculations, and how the language handles numbers that are too large or too small for its underlying representation. [REF-7]
- Also be careful to account for 32-bit, 64-bit, and other potential differences that may affect the numeric representation.
Mitigation MIT-15
For any security checks that are performed on the client side, ensure that these checks are duplicated on the server side, in order to avoid CWE-602. Attackers can bypass the client-side checks by modifying values after the checks have been performed, or by changing the client to remove the client-side checks entirely. Then, these modified values would be submitted to the server.
Mitigation MIT-26
Strategy: Compilation or Build Hardening
Examine compiler warnings closely and eliminate problems with potential security implications, such as signed / unsigned mismatch in memory operations, or use of uninitialized variables. Even if the weakness is rarely exploitable, a single failure may lead to the compromise of the entire system.
CAPEC-92: Forced Integer Overflow
This attack forces an integer variable to go out of range. The integer variable is often used as an offset such as size of memory allocation or similarly. The attacker would typically control the value of such variable and try to get it out of range. For instance the integer in question is incremented past the maximum possible value, it may wrap to become a very small, or negative number, therefore providing a very incorrect value which can lead to unexpected behavior. At worst the attacker can execute arbitrary code.