Common Weakness Enumeration

CWE-190

Allowed

Integer Overflow or Wraparound

Abstraction: Base · Status: Stable

The product performs a calculation that can produce an integer overflow or wraparound when the logic assumes that the resulting value will always be larger than the original value. This occurs when an integer value is incremented to a value that is too large to store in the associated representation. When this occurs, the value may become a very small or negative number.

3870 vulnerabilities reference this CWE, most recent first.

GHSA-HG54-W573-5VVV

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-13 01:12 – Updated: 2022-05-13 01:12
VLAI
Details

A denial of service vulnerability was found in rsyslog in the imptcp module. An attacker could send a specially crafted message to the imptcp socket, which would cause rsyslog to crash. Versions before 8.27.0 are vulnerable.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2018-16881"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-190"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2019-01-25T18:29:00Z",
    "severity": "HIGH"
  },
  "details": "A denial of service vulnerability was found in rsyslog in the imptcp module. An attacker could send a specially crafted message to the imptcp socket, which would cause rsyslog to crash. Versions before 8.27.0 are vulnerable.",
  "id": "GHSA-hg54-w573-5vvv",
  "modified": "2022-05-13T01:12:24Z",
  "published": "2022-05-13T01:12:24Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2018-16881"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHBA-2019:2501"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2019:2110"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2019:2437"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2019:2439"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://bugzilla.redhat.com/show_bug.cgi?id=CVE-2018-16881"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://lists.debian.org/debian-lts-announce/2022/05/msg00028.html"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:N/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-HGG3-G7GR-66R7

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2018-08-27 19:52 – Updated: 2024-10-21 20:21
VLAI
Summary
PyCryptodome integer overflow vulnerability
Details

PyCryptodome before 3.6.6 has an integer overflow in the data_len variable in AESNI.c, related to the AESNI_encrypt and AESNI_decrypt functions, leading to the mishandling of messages shorter than 16 bytes.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [
    {
      "package": {
        "ecosystem": "PyPI",
        "name": "pycryptodome"
      },
      "ranges": [
        {
          "events": [
            {
              "introduced": "0"
            },
            {
              "fixed": "3.6.6"
            }
          ],
          "type": "ECOSYSTEM"
        }
      ]
    }
  ],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2018-15560"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-190"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": true,
    "github_reviewed_at": "2020-06-16T21:40:07Z",
    "nvd_published_at": "2018-08-20T00:29:00Z",
    "severity": "HIGH"
  },
  "details": "PyCryptodome before 3.6.6 has an integer overflow in the data_len variable in AESNI.c, related to the AESNI_encrypt and AESNI_decrypt functions, leading to the mishandling of messages shorter than 16 bytes.",
  "id": "GHSA-hgg3-g7gr-66r7",
  "modified": "2024-10-21T20:21:37Z",
  "published": "2018-08-27T19:52:28Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2018-15560"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/Legrandin/pycryptodome/issues/198"
    },
    {
      "type": "PACKAGE",
      "url": "https://github.com/Legrandin/pycryptodome"
    },
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://github.com/advisories/GHSA-hgg3-g7gr-66r7"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/pypa/advisory-database/tree/main/vulns/pycryptodome/PYSEC-2018-21.yaml"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://whitehatck01.blogspot.com/2018/08/integer-overflow-vulnerability-in.html"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:N/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    },
    {
      "score": "CVSS:4.0/AV:N/AC:L/AT:N/PR:N/UI:N/VC:N/VI:N/VA:H/SC:N/SI:N/SA:N",
      "type": "CVSS_V4"
    }
  ],
  "summary": "PyCryptodome integer overflow vulnerability"
}

GHSA-HGPF-VQ8H-8M5F

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2023-01-18 21:30 – Updated: 2023-01-18 21:30
VLAI
Details

Adobe Acrobat Reader versions 22.003.20282 (and earlier), 22.003.20281 (and earlier) and 20.005.30418 (and earlier) are affected by an Integer Overflow or Wraparound vulnerability that could result in arbitrary code execution in the context of the current user. Exploitation of this issue requires user interaction in that a victim must open a malicious file.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2023-21579"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-190"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2023-01-18T19:15:00Z",
    "severity": "HIGH"
  },
  "details": "Adobe Acrobat Reader versions 22.003.20282 (and earlier), 22.003.20281 (and earlier) and 20.005.30418 (and earlier) are affected by an Integer Overflow or Wraparound vulnerability that could result in arbitrary code execution in the context of the current user. Exploitation of this issue requires user interaction in that a victim must open a malicious file.",
  "id": "GHSA-hgpf-vq8h-8m5f",
  "modified": "2023-01-18T21:30:22Z",
  "published": "2023-01-18T21:30:22Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2023-21579"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://helpx.adobe.com/security/products/acrobat/apsb23-01.html"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-HGPH-39RH-HXH5

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-14 03:02 – Updated: 2022-05-14 03:02
VLAI
Details

The mintToken function of a smart contract implementation for ObjectToken (OBJ), an Ethereum token, has an integer overflow that allows the owner of the contract to set the balance of an arbitrary user to any value.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2018-13622"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-190"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2018-07-09T06:29:00Z",
    "severity": "HIGH"
  },
  "details": "The mintToken function of a smart contract implementation for ObjectToken (OBJ), an Ethereum token, has an integer overflow that allows the owner of the contract to set the balance of an arbitrary user to any value.",
  "id": "GHSA-hgph-39rh-hxh5",
  "modified": "2022-05-14T03:02:13Z",
  "published": "2022-05-14T03:02:13Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2018-13622"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/BlockChainsSecurity/EtherTokens/blob/master/GEMCHAIN/mint%20integer%20overflow.md"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/BlockChainsSecurity/EtherTokens/tree/master/ObjectToken"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:H/A:N",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-HGW5-VQRC-22M5

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-01 07:33 – Updated: 2022-05-01 07:33
VLAI
Details

Multiple integer overflows in Grisoft AVG Anti-Virus before 7.1.407 allow remote attackers to execute arbitrary code via crafted (1) CAB or (2) RAR archives that trigger a heap-based buffer overflow. NOTE: some of these details are obtained from third party information.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2006-5937"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-190"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2006-11-16T00:07:00Z",
    "severity": "HIGH"
  },
  "details": "Multiple integer overflows in Grisoft AVG Anti-Virus before 7.1.407 allow remote attackers to execute arbitrary code via crafted (1) CAB or (2) RAR archives that trigger a heap-based buffer overflow.  NOTE: some of these details are obtained from third party information.",
  "id": "GHSA-hgw5-vqrc-22m5",
  "modified": "2022-05-01T07:33:23Z",
  "published": "2022-05-01T07:33:23Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2006-5937"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "http://marc.info/?l=full-disclosure\u0026m=116343152030074\u0026w=2"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "http://secunia.com/advisories/22811"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "http://www.grisoft.com/doc/36365/lng/us/tpl/tpl01"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "http://www.vupen.com/english/advisories/2006/4498"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": []
}

GHSA-HGWQ-WCHH-F9VV

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2023-07-17 21:31 – Updated: 2024-01-09 03:30
VLAI
Details

iperf3 before 3.14 allows peers to cause an integer overflow and heap corruption via a crafted length field.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2023-38403"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-190"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2023-07-17T21:15:09Z",
    "severity": "HIGH"
  },
  "details": "iperf3 before 3.14 allows peers to cause an integer overflow and heap corruption via a crafted length field.",
  "id": "GHSA-hgwq-wchh-f9vv",
  "modified": "2024-01-09T03:30:21Z",
  "published": "2023-07-17T21:31:11Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2023-38403"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/esnet/iperf/issues/1542"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/esnet/iperf/commit/0ef151550d96cc4460f98832df84b4a1e87c65e9"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://bugs.debian.org/1040830"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/130.html"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://downloads.es.net/pub/iperf/esnet-secadv-2023-0001.txt.asc"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://lists.debian.org/debian-lts-announce/2023/07/msg00025.html"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://lists.fedoraproject.org/archives/list/package-announce%40lists.fedoraproject.org/message/BV6EBWWF4PEQKROEVXGYSTIT2MGBTLU7"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://lists.fedoraproject.org/archives/list/package-announce%40lists.fedoraproject.org/message/M25Z5FHTO3XWMGP37JHJ7IIIHSGCLKEV"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://lists.fedoraproject.org/archives/list/package-announce@lists.fedoraproject.org/message/BV6EBWWF4PEQKROEVXGYSTIT2MGBTLU7"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://lists.fedoraproject.org/archives/list/package-announce@lists.fedoraproject.org/message/M25Z5FHTO3XWMGP37JHJ7IIIHSGCLKEV"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://security.netapp.com/advisory/ntap-20230818-0016"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://support.apple.com/kb/HT213984"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://support.apple.com/kb/HT213985"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "http://seclists.org/fulldisclosure/2023/Oct/24"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "http://seclists.org/fulldisclosure/2023/Oct/26"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:N/I:N/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-HH27-7RQ7-G8W3

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-17 02:44 – Updated: 2025-04-20 03:37
VLAI
Details

An integer overflow error within the "foveon_load_camf()" function (dcraw_foveon.c) in LibRaw-demosaic-pack-GPL2 before 0.18.2 can be exploited to cause a heap-based buffer overflow.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2017-6889"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-190"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2017-05-15T18:29:00Z",
    "severity": "CRITICAL"
  },
  "details": "An integer overflow error within the \"foveon_load_camf()\" function (dcraw_foveon.c) in LibRaw-demosaic-pack-GPL2 before 0.18.2 can be exploited to cause a heap-based buffer overflow.",
  "id": "GHSA-hh27-7rq7-g8w3",
  "modified": "2025-04-20T03:37:44Z",
  "published": "2022-05-17T02:44:02Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2017-6889"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/LibRaw/LibRaw-demosaic-pack-GPL2/commit/194f592e205990ea8fce72b6c571c14350aca716"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://secuniaresearch.flexerasoftware.com/advisories/75000"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-HH3G-2WMG-W3JV

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-06-02 00:31 – Updated: 2026-06-02 00:31
VLAI
Details

In multiple functions of ubsan_throwing_runtime.cpp, there is a possible way to cause a crash due to an integer overflow. This could lead to remote denial of service with no additional execution privileges needed. User interaction is not needed for exploitation.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2026-0052"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-190"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2026-06-01T22:16:20Z",
    "severity": "MODERATE"
  },
  "details": "In multiple functions of ubsan_throwing_runtime.cpp, there is a possible way to cause a crash due to an integer overflow. This could lead to remote denial of service with no additional execution privileges needed. User interaction is not needed for exploitation.",
  "id": "GHSA-hh3g-2wmg-w3jv",
  "modified": "2026-06-02T00:31:56Z",
  "published": "2026-06-02T00:31:56Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2026-0052"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://source.android.com/docs/security/bulletin/2026/2026-06-01"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:N/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-HH43-RPVG-J35F

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2023-10-13 03:30 – Updated: 2023-11-29 15:30
VLAI
Details

An integer overflow flaw was found in the Linux kernel. This issue leads to the kernel allocating skb_shared_info in the userspace, which is exploitable in systems without SMAP protection since skb_shared_info contains references to function pointers.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2023-42752"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-190"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2023-10-13T02:15:09Z",
    "severity": "MODERATE"
  },
  "details": "An integer overflow flaw was found in the Linux kernel. This issue leads to the kernel allocating `skb_shared_info` in the userspace, which is exploitable in systems without SMAP protection since `skb_shared_info` contains references to function pointers.",
  "id": "GHSA-hh43-rpvg-j35f",
  "modified": "2023-11-29T15:30:20Z",
  "published": "2023-10-13T03:30:34Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2023-42752"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://access.redhat.com/security/cve/CVE-2023-42752"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://bugzilla.redhat.com/show_bug.cgi?id=2239828"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/netdev/net.git/commit/?id=915d975b2ffa"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/netdev/net.git/commit/?id=c3b704d4a4a2"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "http://packetstormsecurity.com/files/175963/Kernel-Live-Patch-Security-Notice-LSN-0099-1.html"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:N/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-HH53-27JJ-F5QH

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-14 01:01 – Updated: 2025-04-20 03:33
VLAI
Details

An issue was discovered in ytnef before 1.9.1. This is related to a patch described as "5 of 9. Integer Overflow."

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2017-6302"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-190"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2017-02-24T04:59:00Z",
    "severity": "HIGH"
  },
  "details": "An issue was discovered in ytnef before 1.9.1. This is related to a patch described as \"5 of 9. Integer Overflow.\"",
  "id": "GHSA-hh53-27jj-f5qh",
  "modified": "2025-04-20T03:33:21Z",
  "published": "2022-05-14T01:01:13Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2017-6302"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/Yeraze/ytnef/pull/27"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://lists.fedoraproject.org/archives/list/package-announce%40lists.fedoraproject.org/message/LFJWMUEUC4ILH2HEOCYVVLQT654ZMCGQ"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://lists.fedoraproject.org/archives/list/package-announce@lists.fedoraproject.org/message/LFJWMUEUC4ILH2HEOCYVVLQT654ZMCGQ"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://www.x41-dsec.de/lab/advisories/x41-2017-002-ytnef"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "http://www.debian.org/security/2017/dsa-3846"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "http://www.openwall.com/lists/oss-security/2017/02/15/4"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "http://www.securityfocus.com/bid/96423"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

Mitigation
Requirements

Ensure that all protocols are strictly defined, such that all out-of-bounds behavior can be identified simply, and require strict conformance to the protocol.

Mitigation MIT-3
Requirements

Strategy: Language Selection

  • Use a language that does not allow this weakness to occur or provides constructs that make this weakness easier to avoid.
  • If possible, choose a language or compiler that performs automatic bounds checking.
Mitigation MIT-4
Architecture and Design

Strategy: Libraries or Frameworks

  • Use a vetted library or framework that does not allow this weakness to occur or provides constructs that make this weakness easier to avoid [REF-1482].
  • Use libraries or frameworks that make it easier to handle numbers without unexpected consequences.
  • Examples include safe integer handling packages such as SafeInt (C++) or IntegerLib (C or C++). [REF-106]
Mitigation MIT-8
Implementation

Strategy: Input Validation

  • Perform input validation on any numeric input by ensuring that it is within the expected range. Enforce that the input meets both the minimum and maximum requirements for the expected range.
  • Use unsigned integers where possible. This makes it easier to perform validation for integer overflows. When signed integers are required, ensure that the range check includes minimum values as well as maximum values.
Mitigation MIT-36
Implementation
  • Understand the programming language's underlying representation and how it interacts with numeric calculation (CWE-681). Pay close attention to byte size discrepancies, precision, signed/unsigned distinctions, truncation, conversion and casting between types, "not-a-number" calculations, and how the language handles numbers that are too large or too small for its underlying representation. [REF-7]
  • Also be careful to account for 32-bit, 64-bit, and other potential differences that may affect the numeric representation.
Mitigation MIT-15
Architecture and Design

For any security checks that are performed on the client side, ensure that these checks are duplicated on the server side, in order to avoid CWE-602. Attackers can bypass the client-side checks by modifying values after the checks have been performed, or by changing the client to remove the client-side checks entirely. Then, these modified values would be submitted to the server.

Mitigation MIT-26
Implementation

Strategy: Compilation or Build Hardening

Examine compiler warnings closely and eliminate problems with potential security implications, such as signed / unsigned mismatch in memory operations, or use of uninitialized variables. Even if the weakness is rarely exploitable, a single failure may lead to the compromise of the entire system.

CAPEC-92: Forced Integer Overflow

This attack forces an integer variable to go out of range. The integer variable is often used as an offset such as size of memory allocation or similarly. The attacker would typically control the value of such variable and try to get it out of range. For instance the integer in question is incremented past the maximum possible value, it may wrap to become a very small, or negative number, therefore providing a very incorrect value which can lead to unexpected behavior. At worst the attacker can execute arbitrary code.